Which theory of motivation is illustrated by planning actions based on expected outcomes and perceived rewards?

• A. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
• B. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
• C. Equity Theory
• D. Expectancy Theory

Answer: (D)

Expectancy theory explains motivation as a function of the belief that effort will lead to performance, that performance will lead to a reward, and that the reward is valuable. When you plan actions based on what you expect to happen and what you value receiving, you’re applying this reasoning. For example, if you believe studying hard will improve your performance, and that better performance will earn you a reward you care about, you’ll be motivated to put in the extra effort. The three components—expectancy (effort → performance), instrumentality (performance → outcome), and valence (value of the outcome)—work together to drive action. Other theories describe different drivers: Maslow focuses on meeting needs from basic to self-actualization, not the cognitive link between effort and rewards; Herzberg highlights hygiene factors and motivators rather than a reward-based planning process; Equity theory centers on fairness and social comparisons, not the expectation of rewards.